We all know that red blood cells are produced through a process named erythropoiesis, developing from committed stem cells to mature erythrocytes in about 7 days. When matured, these cells live in blood circulation for about 100 to 120 days. At the end of their lifespan, they become senescent, and are removed from circulation. But why 120 days?

The answer!

The answer lies in the red blood cell itself! Erythrocytes in mammals are anucleate when mature, meaning that they lack a cell nucleus (only known exceptions are salamanders of the Batrachoseps genus and fish of the Maurolicus genus, they have nucleus in their red blood cells). Because of the lack of nucleus in humans the red blood cells cannot produce necessary enzymes for energy producing processess like glycolysis for longer period of time. Thus whatever the enzymes that were present during erythrogenesis, these enzymes remain in the cells and help the cell to produce energy for 100-120 days. Not only does these enzymes help produce energy in the red blood cell they also help maintain the shape and flexibility of the cell such that the cells will squeeze there way through  arteries and viens. when the cell runs out of these enzymes , the cell can no longer maintain its shape and producing thus making it vulnerable to shear and stress of the viens and arteries.

It is also believed that lack of these  enzymes evokes factors in Red blood cells that signal a process called apoptosis(Programmed cell death!). The death of the cell is preprogrammed such that the cell is killed as soon as it becomes absolete! and the cell is recycled, just as soda cans are recycled, the remnants of cell death are used again to rebuild newer cells! The greenest technology lives right inside us!   We can learn a thing or two by studying ourselves! The human body has got lot of things to teach us. If we can harness the essence and spirit of human body and use them for the development of our society then the immediate problems faced by us on the face of this planet like global warming, pollution , waste management etc., can be tackled intelligently and efficiently.

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?Contents:

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Breast cancer treatment is moving increasingly toward laboratory based, targeted therapies that are tailored to the individual patient. The treatment of breast cancer, and probably all cancers, will likely soon be practiced in this radically different fashion. The tsunami wave of laboratory and translational research that is already under way will soon alter the management of breast cancer in fundamental ways, and in fact, is already influencing the way in which we think about treating breast cancer patients and performing research.

Research into clinical, laboratory, and translational aspects of breast cancer has improved enormously our ability to treat and cure patients with this disease. Population-based data (for example, from the USA and the UK) document a substantial decrease in the mortality from breast cancer in the last decade, notwithstanding an increase in the incidence of breast cancer detection, attesting to the benefit in human terms from this research. Authors believe that this downward trend in mortality is only the beginning.

What makes this book unique is that it considers a wide range of relevant and exciting areas of clinical, translational, and basic research for their potential for clinical application today as well as for transforming future breast cancer treatment. If the history of scientific discovery is any guide, then some, but not all, of these research areas will prove valuable for patient care, and the remainder will fall by the wayside. However, no one can predict today which of these research areas will have the most impact on treating patients in the years to come.

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Polymer-based porous membranes can be used to shield implanted cells from the immune system of the host, while allowing for the exchange of nutrients and metabolic waste products thus keeping the cells alive and functioning. In genetic engineering, polymers often play a very important role during the transfer of the foreign genetic material into the recipient cell. In this context polymers present interesting and perhaps safer alternatives to gene delivery by viruses. Last but not least, synthetic polymers have been used to mimic the function of certain biological molecules. Examples are the “artificial antibodies” and “artificial enzymes” produced by a technique called molecular imprinting. Synthetic displacers in protein displacement chromatography, on the other hand, have to mimic the interaction of the protein with the chromatographic surface to successfully compete for the binding sites and thereby enforce the chromatographic separation.

Book overview:
The idea for this book was first conceived during discussion amongst some of the people at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, which use synthetic polymers for some of the above-mentioned purposes. The book starts with two chapters on the delivery of biologicals using synthetic polymers. The chapter on cell encapsulation treats this important subject by taking the bioartificial pancreas as an example. The chapter on gene delivery focuses on the many barriers which nature developed to prevent the genetic modification of cells. Viruses are natural and extremely efficient means of overcome these barriers. Unfortunately, they have in the past given raise to some ethical questions regarding the safety of their use. Artificial polymers will hopefully one day replace these viral systems for the genetic modifications of cells.

Specialties of Second Edition:
The second section of the book deals with the use of synthetic polymers for the purpose of isolating biologicals (bioseparation). The chapter on affinity precipitation describes the use of stimulus-responsive polymers for this purpose. Upon the change of a certain external parameter like the temperature or the pH, such polymers change their behavior, e.g., their solubility in water, in a very abrupt manner. If the polymer is linked to an affinity mediator, any target molecule can be captured and co-precipitated. The issue of stimulus-responsive (sometimes also called “smart”) polymers is taken up again in chapter 6. In this chapter a common problem in tissue engineering is addressed. If cells are to be grown on a surface, this surface should have a hydrophilic quality. However, what is good for growth may later become a severe handicap, when the goal is to remove the cells for theirfinal application. Many cells do not react well to the agents commonly used for that purpose. The hydrophobicity of a surface covered with stimulus-responsive polymers, on the other hand, may be changed almost at will by stimulation with a suitable agent. Cells have been known to detach on their own, once a formerly hydrophilic surface had become hydrophobic due to a slight increase in temperature. Other applications of such stimulus-responsive surfaces may be found in bioseparation and drug delivery. The final chapter of the book deals with molecular imprinting as a means to give to polymeric surfaces the ability to distinguish between closely related molecules, which normally are only found in biological compounds such as enzymes.

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Over the more than three decades that each of the authors has been teaching biochemistry to medical students, we have found students increasingly overwhelmed with details that tend to obscure rather than elucidate principles of human metabolism.

The main aim of this book was to provide students in the health professions with a concise resource that will help them understand and appreciate the functions, constituent reactions, and regulatory aspects of the core pathways that constitute human metabolism and which are responsible for maintaining homeostasis and well-being in humans. Authors tried to accomplish this by emphasizing function, regulation, and disease processes, while minimizing discussion of reaction mechanisms and details of enzyme structure.

Each chapter is organized in a consistent manner beginning with an explanation of the main functions of the pathway under discussion. Next comes a brief accounting of the cells, tissues, and organs in which the pathway is expressed and the conditions under which the normal function of the pathway is especially important. The bulk of each chapter is devoted to the reactions that account for the function of the pathway, with emphasis on key steps in the pathway. The next section of each chapter discusses the ways in which the activity of the pathway is regulated by hormones, genetic factors, or changes in the intracellular concentration of key metabolites. Each chapter concludes with a discussion of the more common and illustrative diseases that result from defects in or derangements of regulation of the pathway.

This volume is deliberately modest in size. Instead of providing exhaustive coverage of all the reactions that human cells and tissues are capable of executing, we have chosen examples that illustrate the physiologic and pathophysiologic significance of the topic. The authors’ expectation is that each chapter will be read for comprehension rather than to provide abundant fact and detail. During their subsequent education and professional careers, the readers will undoubtedly have need for more information on many topics discussed in this book.

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Here’s why this is the best edition of Ganong’s ever:

• NEW full-colour illustrations — the authors have worked with an outstanding team of medical illustrators, photographers, educators, and students to give you an unmatched collection of illustrations and tables
• NEW boxed clinical cases – featuring examples of diseases that illustrate important physiological principles
• NEW end-of-chapter board review questions
• IPod-compatible review – questions and illustrations from each chapter test your comprehension of the material
• Companion online learning center includes cases, illustrations, and board review questions (langemedicaltextbooks.com)

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The level of the book is meant to be midway between an oversimplified review book and an encyclopaedic textbook of physiology. Each chapter is written by medical school faculty members who have had many years of experience teaching physiology and who are experts in their field. They have selected material that is important for medical students to know and have presented this material in a concise, uncomplicated, and understandable fashion.

This book begins with a discussion of basic physiological concepts, such as homeostasis and cell signalling, in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 covers the cell membrane, membrane transport, and the cell membrane potential. Most of the remaining chapters discuss the different organ systems: nervous, muscle, cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and reproductive physiology. Special chapters on the blood and the liver are included. Chapters on acid-base regulation, temperature regulation, and exercise discuss these complex, integrated functions. The order of presentation of topics follows that of most United States medical school courses in physiology. After the first two chapters, the other chapters can be read in any order, and some chapters may be skipped if the subjects are taught in other courses (e.g., neurobiology or biochemistry). Material on pathophysiology is included throughout the book. This not only reinforces fundamental physiological principles but also demonstrates the relevance of physiology to an understanding of numerous medically important conditions.

This second edition incorporates many features that should aid the student in his or her study of physiology:

• Chapter outline. The outline at the beginning of each chapter gives a preview of the chapter and is a useful study aid.
• Key concepts. Each chapter starts with a short list of key concepts that the student should understand after reading the chapter.
• Text. The text is easy to read, and topics are developed logically. Difficult concepts are explained clearly, often with the help of figures. Minutiae or esoteric topics are avoided.
• Topic headings. Second-level topic headings are active full-sentence statements. For example, instead of heading a section “Homeostasis,” the heading is “Homeostasis is the maintenance of steady states in the body by coordinated physiological mechanisms.” In this way, the key idea in a section is immediately obvious.
• Boldfacing. Key terms are boldfaced upon their first appearance in a chapter.
• Illustrations and tables. The figures have been selected to illustrate important concepts. The illustrations often show interrelationships between different variables or components of a system. Many of the figures are flow diagrams, so that students can appreciate the sequence of events that follow when a factor changes. Tables often provide useful summaries of material explained in more detail in the text.
• Clinical focus boxes. Each chapter contains one or two clinical focus boxes that illustrate the relevance of the physiology discussed in the chapter to an understanding of medicine.
• Case studies. Each section concludes with a set of case studies, one for each chapter, with questions and answers. These case studies help to reinforce how an understanding of physiology is important in dealing with clinical conditions.
• Review questions and answers. Students can use the review questions at the end of each chapter to test whether they have mastered the material. These USMLE-type questions should help students prepare for the Step 1 examination. Answers to the questions are provided at the end of the book and include explanations as to why the choices are correct or incorrect.
• Suggested readings. Each chapter provides a short list of recent review articles, monographs, book chapters, classic papers, or Web sites where students can obtain additional information.
• Abbreviations and normal values. This second edition includes a table of common abbreviations in physiology and a table of normal blood, plasma, or serum values. All abbreviations are defined when first used in the text, but the table of abbreviations in the appendix serves as a useful reminder of abbreviations commonly used in physiology and medicine. Normal values for blood are also embedded in the text, but the table on the inside of the front cover provides a more complete and easily accessible reference.
• Index. A complete index allows the student to easily look up material in the text.

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The most significant feature of this book is its clear, up-to-date, accurate explanations of mechanisms, rather than the mere description of facts and events. Because there are no limits to what can be covered in an introductory text, it is essential to reinforce over and over, through clear explanations, that physiology can be understood in terms of basic themes and principles. As evidenced by the very large number of flow diagrams employed, the book emphasizes understanding based on the ability to think in clearly defined chains of causal links. This approach is particularly evident in our emphasis of the dominant theme of human physiology and of this book—homeostasis as achieved through the coordinated function of homeostatic control systems.

To repeat, authors have attempted to explain, integrate, and synthesize information rather than simply to describe, so that students will achieve a working knowledge of physiology, not just a memory bank of physiological facts. Since the book aim has been to tell a coherent story, rather than to write an encyclopaedia, authors have been willing to devote considerable space to the logical development of difficult but essential concepts; examples are second messengers (Chapter 7), membrane potentials (Chapter 8), and the role of intrapleural pressure in breathing (Chapter 15). In keeping with author goals, the book progresses from the cell to the body, utilizing information and principles developed previously at each level of complexity. One example of this approach is as follows: the characteristics that account for protein specificity are presented in Part One (Chapter 4), and this concept is used there to explain the “recognition” process exhibited by enzymes. It is then used again in Part Two (Chapter 7) for membrane receptors, and again in Part Three (Chapter 20) for antibodies. In this manner, the student is helped to see the basic foundations upon which more complex functions such as homeostatic neuroendocrine and immune responses are built.

Another example: Rather than presenting, in a single chapter, a gland-by-gland description of all the hormones, we give a description of the basic principles of endocrinology in Chapter 10, but then save the details of individual hormones for later chapters. This permits the student to focus on the functions of the hormones in the context of the homeostatic control systems in which they participate.

Another example: Rather than presenting, in a single chapter, a gland-by-gland description of all the hormones, we give a description of the basic principles of endocrinology in Chapter 10, but then save the details of individual hormones for later chapters. This permits the student to focus on the functions of the hormones in the context of the homeostatic control systems in which they participate.

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